Monday, January 27, 2020
Advantages Of Internal Combustion Engines Engineering Essay
Advantages Of Internal Combustion Engines Engineering Essay The most widely used heat engine is the internal combustion engine. The advantages that it has over gas turbines have seen its widespread usage in passenger car applications. [1] All the components of internal combustion engines work at an average temperature which is below the maximum temperature of the working fluid in the working cycle. This is because the high temperature of the working fluid in the cycle persists only for a very small fraction of the cycle time. As a result, fluids with high working temperatures can be used to increase thermal efficiency at moderate maximum working pressures. Weight to power ratio is less than that of steam turbine and gas turbines. It is therefore possible to develop reciprocating IC engines of very small power output with reasonable thermal efficiency and cost. Higher brake thermal efficiency can be obtained as only a small fraction of heat energy of the fuel is dissipated to the cooling system. Initial cost is low. Materials used in the manufacture of gas turbines must be strong and heat resistant in order to sustain the heat generated. Machining operations required for gas turbines construction are also more complex. Reciprocating IC engines are more efficient at idle speeds than gas turbines in terms of fuel consumption at idling. Gas turbines have delayed responses to different power requirements changes. Gas turbines must be removed for overhaul and servicing, which is usually not the case in internal combustion engines. Gas turbines require more air than IC engines for its normal operation. It also consumes more fuel whenever the load fluctuates, which is common in the domestic usage. All these explain why passenger cars do not use gas turbine engines, but use internal combustion engines instead. Question 2 Define the following parameters and give typical values for spark-ignition and compression ignition IC engines: Specific fuel consumption, Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the fuel flow rate per unit power output []. It measures how efficiency of an engine in using the fuel to produce useful work. The equation for the specific fuel consumption is: Where: Ke= specific fuel consumption K: Fuel Consumption, kg/s Pe=Useful work per cycle, i = 0.5 for 4ÃŽ, 1 for 2ÃŽ ne=real efficiency HÃŽÂ ± =Heat of Combustion = 42.000 KJ/Kg Low values of SFC are obviously desirable. For SI engines typical values of brake specific fuel consumption are about 270 g/kWh. Range (345 285 g/kWh) For CI engines, values are lower and in large engines can go below 200 g/kWh. Range (285 190 g/kWh) [2] Mean effective pressure, Relative engine performance measure is obtained by dividing the work per cycle by the cylinder volume displaced per cycle. The parameter so obtained has units of force per unit area and is called the mean effective pressure (mep). Where: W=Indicated Work: Vh=Piston Displacement (cylinder) Volume (cc, cm3, lt) H=Length TDC Length BDC For, Naturally aspirated spark ignition engines, maximum values are in the range 850 to 1050 kPa at the engine speed where maximum torque is obtained (about 3000 rev/min). Turbocharged automotive spark-ignition engines the maximum bmep is in the 1250 to 1700 kPa range. Naturally aspirated four-stroke diesels, the maximum bmep is in the 700 to 900 kPa range Turbocharged four-stroke diesel maximum bmep values are typically in the range 1000 to 1200 kPa Turbocharged aftercooled engines this can rise to 1400 kPa Two-stroke cycle diesels have comparable performance to four-stroke cycle engines. Large low-speed two-stroke cycle engines can achieve bmep values of about 1600 kPa. [2] Power-torque relation as function of engine rpm, Engine torque is measured using a dynamometer. The engine is clamped and the output shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically, or by mechanical friction to a stator, which is supported in low friction bearings. The stator is balanced keeping the rotor stationary. The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured by balancing the stator with weights, springs, or pneumatic means. Fig.1 Brake dynamometer- engine torque test [2] Torque is a measure of an engines ability to do work; and power is the rate at which work is done. The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake power Pb. This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load-in this case, a brake. Fig.2 Engine power, torque vs. speed plot [3] Correlation between measured force and engine torque: Measured power: (1 PS = 0.736 kW) Conversion between different units may be necessary for power, torque, or angular speed. For example, if rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed (radians per time), a factor of 2Ã â‚ ¬ radians per revolution have to be multiplied. Dividing on the left by 60 seconds per minute and by 1000 watts per kilowatt gives us the following. mbox{power (kW)} = frac{ mbox{torque (N}cdotmbox{m)} times 2 pi times mbox{rotational speed (rpm)}} {60,000} Volumetric efficiency Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the mass inside the engine cylinder to the mass of air of the displacement volume at atmospheric conditions. It measures the effectiveness of an engines induction process. Volumetric efficiency is used for four-stroke cycle engines which have a distinct induction process and not for two stroke engines. Where pai is the inlet air density Alternatively volumetric efficiency can also be defined as, Indicative values: 4ÃŽ-Otto: 0.7 0.9 2ÃŽ-Otto: 0.5 0.7 Typical maximum values of ÃŽÂ ·v for naturally aspirated engines are in the range 80 to 90 percent. The volumetric efficiency for diesels is somewhat higher than for SI engines. [2] Engine real efficiency as function of engine power, fuel consumption and fuel calorific value The real engine efficiency of an engine can be found out using the relation Where, ne=real efficiency nth= theoretical thermodynamic efficiency ng=quality coefficient (0.4-0.7 Otto; 0.6-0.8 Diesel) nm=mechanical efficiency (0.8) ni=actual efficiency (nth.ng=Pi/Q) K= fuel consumption Kg/s HÃŽÂ ± =Heat of Combustion = 42.000 KJ/Kg Question 3 Describe with simple terms the main air flow path developing inside the cylinder of IC engines relative to the piston motion; make a simple schematic to indicate them. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) helps us to visualise the charge motion within the cylinder with the help of optically transparent research engines. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) can help in validating the average flow field in the cylinder but the process is expensive. One such CFD software is KIVA-4v, which helps to predict the air charge motion. Swirl flow Swirl is defined as the micro mass rotational motion of charge within the cylinder. It is generated by constructing the intake system to give a tangential component to the intake flow as it enters the cylinder. This is done by shaping and contouring the intake manifold, valve ports, and sometimes even the piston face. Swirl enhances the mixing of air and fuel to give a homogeneous mixture in a short time in modern high-speed engines. It is also responsible for very rapid spreading of flame front during the combustion. Fig.3 Swirl flow in the engine cylinder [3] Swirl flow can be generated by changing the geometry of the inlet port Fig.4 Geometry of inlet port affecting swirl flow [3] (a) Deflector wall (b) directed (c) shallow ramp helical (d) steep ramp helical Similarly inlet valve approach geometry can also generate swirl flow by producing net in-cylinder angular momentum of the charge. Fig.5 Inlet valve geometry affecting swirl flow [2] Squish flow When the piston approaches TDC at the end of the compression stroke, the volume around the outer edges of the combustion chamber reduces drastically. New combustion chamber designs have the clearance volume near the centerline of the cylinder. As the piston approaches TDC, the gas mixture occupying the volume at the outer radius of the cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer volume is reduced to near zero. This radial inward motion of the gas mixture is called squish. It adds to other mass motions within the cylinder to mix the air and fuel, and quickly spreads the flame front. Maximum squish velocity usually occurs at about 10Â °bTDC. During combustion, the expansion stroke begins and the volume of the combustion chamber increases. As the piston moves away from TDC, the burning gases are propelled radially outward to fill the now-increasing outer volume along the cylinder walls. This reverse squish helps to spread the flame front during the latter part of combustion Piston motion influences squish as in the case of wedge shaped and bowl-in combustion chambers. Fig.6 Piston motion generating squish [2] (a) Wedge shaped SI combustion chamber (b) bowl-in-piston DI Diesel combustion chamber Tumble As the piston nears TDC, squish motion generates a secondary rotational flow called tumble. This rotation occurs about a circumferential axis near the outer edge of the piston bowl Fig.7Tumble- result of piston motion and squish [3] Turbulence Due to the high velocities involved, all flows into, out of, and within engine cylinders are turbulent flows. The exception to this is those flows in the corners and small crevices of the combustion chamber where the close proximity of the walls dampens out turbulence. As a result of turbulence, thermodynamic transfer rates within an engine are increased by an order of magnitude. Heat transfer, evaporation, mixing, and combustion rates all increase. As engine speed increases, flow rates increase, with a corresponding increase in swirl, squish, and turbulence. This increases the real-time rate of fuel evaporation, mixing of the fuel vapor and air, and combustion. Intake turbulent mixture flow Turbulence superimposed on mixture swirl Fig.8 Turbulence of the charge within cylinder [4] Question 4 The Figure below shows a conceptual model of a quasi-steady Diesel combustion plume, as presented by Dec et al in 1997. Indicate the following areas shown on this schematic: liquid fuel , rich vapour fuel-air mixture , fuel-rich premixed flame, initial soot formation , diffusion flame boundary , thermal NO production zone , soot oxidation zone , 25398f1.jpg Fig.9 Quasi-steady Diesel combustion plume [5] The above figure describes the formation and features of a quasi-steady diesel fuel jet. This model is applicable to large bore, quiescent chamber combustion or a free fuel jet without wall interactions. At the point of fuel injection, fuel penetrates into the combustion chamber and air which is at a high temperature due to end of compression stroke begins to mix with the spray. Fuel absorbs energy from the hot air and evaporates. This process continues until a point where no liquid fuel is present. The point at which this occurs is called the liquid length. This liquid length reduces after the start of combustion but thereafter remains constant until the end of injection. Beyond the liquid length, the rich premixed fuel and air are still heated by the surroundings until they start to react in the rich premixed zone. The products of rich combustion continue downstream and diffuse and mix radially outward until reaching the surrounding cylinder gases. At a location where the rich prod ucts and cylinder gases mix to produce a stoichiometric mixture, a diffusion flame is produced. The diffusion flame surrounds the jet in a thin turbulent sheet, which extends upstream towards the nozzle. The axial distance from the nozzle exit to the diffusion flame is the lift-off length. The lift-off length controls the amount of oxygen mixed into the fuel jet and therefore the stoichiometry. Soot is burned out and NOX is produced on the outside of the diffusion flame, where temperatures are high and oxygen and nitrogen are abundant. Question 5 What are the main requirements of the fuel injection system for a direct injection engine? In recent years, significant progress has been made in the development of advanced computer-controlled fuel injection systems, which has had much to do with the research and development activities related to Direct Injected engines being expanded. [6]The main requirements of the fuel injection system for a direct injection engine are: Well atomised fuel spray independent of chamber pressure conditions Injection during the compression stroke against pressures up to 20bar Injection during the intake stroke against atmospheric pressures with stoichiometric homogeneous mixture To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multi cylinder engine To improve breathing capacity of an engine i.e. volumetric efficiency To reduce or eliminate detonation To prevent fuel loss in the form of scavenging in the case of two stroke engines. For an efficient combustion of a stratified mixture, a stable and compact spray geometry is necessary Injection pressure has been determined to be very important for obtaining both effective spray atomization and the required level of spray penetration. Accurate fuel metering (generally a +2% band over the linear flow range); Desirable fuel mass distribution pattern for the application; Minimal spray skew for both sac and main sprays; Good spray axisymmetry over the operating range; Minimal drippage and zero fuel leakage, particularly for cold operation; Small sac volume; Good low-end linearity between the dynamic flow and the fuel pulse width; Small pulse-to-pulse variation in fuel quantity and spray characteristics; Minimal variation in the above parameters from unit to unit. Question 6 Describe the injection process requirements for direct injection Diesel engines and the evolution of the fuel injection equipment over the last few decades. The functional requirements of the fuel injection system are as follows Accurate fuel metering per engine working cycle Injection timing to ensure maximum power, good fuel economy and low emissions Obtain the desirable heat release pattern by control of injection rate Atomisation of the fuel Proper spray pattern to ensure better mixing of fuel and air Uniform distribution of fuel droplets in the combustion chamber Supply equal quantities of fuel to all cylinders, in the case of multi cylinder engines Eliminate dripping of fuel droplets into the combustion chamber by eliminating injection lag between start and end of injection Evolution of fuel injection equipment: In-line pump Fig.10 Layout of In-line fuel injection pump [7] Though in-line pumps are primitive injection systems, they are still in use among heavy duty marine engines. Individual fuel pumps fuel each of the injectors Engine operational speed has a major influence on the fuel injection pressures As a result, there is a hydraulic delay between the pressure increase and the start of injection Fuel flows through high pressure connecting pipes Fuel injection pressures range from 600 1200 bar Injector with discharging in the combustion chamber (the nozzle with one or more holes) Distributor type pumps These are still used in a number of engines Though it started as mechanically operated, now electronic control modifications have been made It has a mechanism which controls the spill valve responsible for cutting off the high pressure generated inside the pumping chamber, and thus, responsible for the termination of injection One pumping chamber delivers high pressure to all the injectors of the engine Pressure depends on engine speed, so a hydraulic delay exists between the pressure generation and start of injection Relatively low injection pressures (up to 1200bar) Fig.11 Distributor type pump (Lucas CAV) [7] Unit injectors Consists of the pump and the injector integrated into one body, which does not require a high pressure connection pipe High fuel pressure is generated close to the nozzle exit, which can be upto 2500 bar. These gave accurate control over injection Each cylinder has its own individual system High pressure developed depends of the engine rpm and the load. Fig.12 General Layout of Unit injector [7] [6]Delphi Diesel Systems electronic unit injectors (EUI fig13.) control the quantity and the timing of injection electronically through a solenoid actuator. The solenoid can respond very quickly (injection periods are of the order 1 ms), to control very high injection pressures (up to 1600 bar or so). The solenoid controls a spill valve, which in turn controls the injection process. The pumping element is operated directly from a camshaft (or indirectly via a rocker), and the whole assembly is contained within the cylinder head. Fig.13 Electronic Unit injector (Lucas EUI system) [7] [6]An alternative approach to the EUI is the Caterpillar Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injector (HEUI, also supplied by other manufacturers). HEUI uses a hydraulic pressure intensifier system with a 7: 1 pressure ratio to generate the injection pressures. The hydraulic pressure is generated by pumping engine lubricant to a controllable high pressure. Similar to CR injection systems, there is control of the injection pressure. The HEUI uses a two-stage valve to control the oil pressure, and this is able to control the rate at which the fuel pressure rises, thereby controlling the rate of injection, because a lower injection rate can help control NOx emissions. Common Rail fuel injection systems One of the last improvements to the fuel injection system is the Common Rail System that was implemented first by the Fiat Company. Fig.14 Common rail fuel injection system [8] Common rail (CR) fuel injection systems decouple the pressure generation from the injection process and have become popular because of the possibilities offered by electronic control. The key elements of a CR fuel injection system are as follows: A (controllable) high-pressure pump The fuel rail with a pressure sensor Electronically controlled injectors An engine management system (EMS) The injector is an electro-hydraulic device, in which a control valve determines whether or not the injector needle lifts from its seat. The engine management system can divide the injection process into four phases: two pilot injections, main injection, and post-injection (for supplying a controlled quantity of hydrocarbons as a reducing agent for NOx catalysts). Common rail injection also enables a high output to be achieved at a comparatively low engine speed Fuel injectors Fig.15 Types of nozzles used in Diesel fuel injectors [1]
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Dolls house
House by Henrik Ibsen is my favorite play that we read this semester. A main reason I liked this play was because of the writer himself. Ibsen is a realistic writer who took his problems from his day and brought it to life on stage. A Doll's House deals with where women stand in their marriage and society. Ibsen felt injustice to what society was doing around him. A Doll's House is about a Married couple named Nora and Torvald.Nora borrows a lot of money from a man named Krogstad , who happened to work for her husband. She did this because when her husband got sick e said that he needed to get out of the country to get better. Nora was only trying to do her best for her husband. She never told him of this loan and has been secretly paying it by saving from her household allowance. Her husband thinks her careless and childlike, and often calls her his doll.When he is appointed bank director, his first act is to relieve a man who was once disgraced for having forged his signature on a document. Krogstad, is the person Nora has borrowed her money. Nora forgot that she forged her father's signature in order to get the money. Krogstad threatens to reveal Nora's crime and tell her husband and everyone. Krogstand wants Nora to talk Torvald into keeping his Job. Nora tries to but Torvald thinks of Nora as a child who cannot understand the value of money or business.When Torvald discovers that Nora has forged her father's name, he is ready to disclaim his wife even though she had done it for him . Nora then tells Torvald she is leaving him and her children. This play was sort of mysterious and interesting. I liked it because it showed how society was a long time ago for women and showed that Nora realized to move on with life and become a independent person which is abnormal in this time period for a women.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Psychiatric Nursing: A Guide to DSM-IV-TR Multiaxial System Essay
Introduction            The heart of the DSM-IV-TR system is the multiaxial format that uses five levels or areas to perform a thorough diagnosis. This system recognizes the complexity of diagnosis and the interrelatedness of many factors that are components of a mental disorder diagnosis. The multiaxial system generally takes into account psychological, physical, internal, external, developmental, and social factors. The five axes that make up the system are as follows:            Axis I: Clinical Disorders – other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention            Axis II: Personality Disorders – Mental retardation            Axis III: General Medical Conditions            Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems            Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning Axis I: Clinical Disorders and Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation            Axis I and Axis II are the key components of the multiaxial system and are used o record the 340 disorders in the classification system. The distinction between the two axes has a historical basis. Axis I is used to record what in the past were viewed as neuroses and psychoses, and Axis II is used to record what were referred to as character disorders. Neuroses were considered deficiencies and limitations that could impair, but not chronically alter, almost al areas of functioning and could be effectively relieved with intervention. Character disorders were viewed as long-standing defects ingrained in the developmental process of childhood that caused major, lifelong dysfunction in most aspects of life and were not generally amenable to treatment. This is most likely why payers consistently reimburse clinicians for Axis I disorders and not Axis II disorders, since Axis I disorders can be changed through intervention, whereas Axis II disorders are unalterable, and paying for treatment of intractable disorders is an inefficient use of funds.            In the existing system, Axis I is used to trace clinical disorders in the foremost section of DSM-IV-TR, in addition to other situations that may be a focus of clinical awareness. Axis II is used for reporting personality disorders and mental retardation. A separate axis is included for personality disorders and mental retardation to ensure that they are not overlooked, since Axis I disorders are more evident during an assessment. Axis II can also be utilized to record maladaptive character features and protection methods. Personality features and defense mechanisms are recorded without codes. Axis III: General Medical Conditions            Axis III is used to record coexisting physical disorders that may be associated with a mental disorder or may be independent of the mental disorder but related to its treatment. These conditions are classified outside the â€Å"Mental Disorders†.            Universal medical circumstances can be related to mental disorders in a diversity of traditions. Sometimes, it is obvious that the broad medical situation is frankly etiological to the expansion or deterioration of mental indications and that the method for this outcome is physiological. In cases of a mental illness that is diagnosed to be an outright physiological outcome of the overall medical circumstance, a Mental Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition must be identified on Axis I and the overall medical state must be documented on both Axis I and Axis III.            Such situations in which the etiological correlation involving the universal medical state and the mental signs is inadequately comprehensible to demand an Axis I finding of Mental Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition, the suitable mental illness should be recorded and coded on Axis I; the overall medical state must be only be coded on Axis III.            In a case where a person has over one clinically pertinent Axis III finding, all must be documented. If no Axis III abnormality is there, this must be designated by the information â€Å"Axis III: None.†If an Axis III diagnosis is postponed, in the course of the gathering of supplementary information, this must be designated by the information â€Å"Axis III: Deferred.†Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems            Axis IV is for documenting psychosocial and environmental troubles that may have an effect on the judgment management, and prediction of mental disorders (Axes I and II). Any life events can trigger, worsen, or perpetuate mental disorders. Axis IV encourages clinicians to consider factors that may be critical in the overall management of the patient.            Typically, the stressors are restricted to those that have occurred in the past year. However, long-standing, chronic, or severe problems that occurred many years in the past that still have an enduring influence are also recorded. Psychosocial and environmental problems that become the primary focus of clinical attention (usually in the absence of another psychiatric diagnosis) are recorded on Axis I. Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning            Axis V allows you to judge how well your patient has been able to function at work, in social relations, and during leisure time. This assessment is doe by using the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) to rate your patient’s level of functioning at the time of the evaluation, and you may also want to rate his or her highest level of functioning for at least a few months during the past year. The patient’s current level of functioning will generally reflect his or her need for treatment, and the highest level of functioning in the past year is likely to have some prognostic significance, because patients often return to their previous levels of functioning after an episode of illness.            You will want to consult DSM-IV to determine how to evaluate your patients’ situations with respect to psychosocial stressors (Axis IV) and global assessment of functioning (Axis V). In many health care facilities, the use of Axis IV and Axis V is optional. References: McDonald, J. J., & Kulick, F. B. (2002). Mental and Emotional Injuries in Employment Litigation (2nd ed.). Washington DC: BNA Books. Munson, C. E. (2001). The Mental Health Diagnostic Desk Reference: Visual Guides and More for Learning to Use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) (2nd ed.). New York: Haworth Press. Â
Friday, January 3, 2020
The Louisiana Science Education Act Essay - 1728 Words
In the United States, evolution and creationism remain a controversial issue as far as which method should stay in science classes across the globe. How was the earth created? How were humans created? These are questions that arise in most science classes. Many students require an explanation of why people exist. There are those who would oppose evolution, and there are those who oppose creationism. Is there a significant difference between these methods? Several states have passed regulations that allow schools to teach both evolution and creationism. The Louisiana Science Education Act, in particular, is a highly controversial debate. The act allows teachers to teach adscititious materials in the classroom. Many opponents are looking to repeal this law. The Louisiana Science Education Act should not be repealed as it allows the student to engage in critical thinking skills, acknowledge both theories and ultimately decide which theory they believe. Looking back at our history creationism was the first explanation of why humans exist today. Since the beginning of time Christianity has played a significant role in religion. Christianity started in Jerusalem and expanded into many different denominations across the world. Therefore, Christianity is a religion based off of Jesus Christ and God the creator of the earth. â€Å"Creationism stemmed from several religions and is the belief that a higher being or deity created everything living thing in nature through divine interventionShow MoreRelatedEducation Is Not An Obligation1075 Words  | 5 PagesEducation is a privilege not an obligation. Being blessed with the opportunity to apply for college, let alone go to college, is something some kids never get to see. Getting a degree is important because it is a gift only a small portion of the population has access to. Being able to grow academically as well as spiritually, physically, and emotional are just a few of the many bene fits. 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